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Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Jesus (disambiguation), Christ (disambiguation), Jesus Christ (disambiguation), and Jesus of Nazareth (disambiguation).

Jesus[e] (c. 6 to 4 BC – AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ,[f] Jesus of Nazareth, and by various other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader in the Roman province of Judaea.[12] He is the central figure of Christianity, the world's largest religion. Most Christians consider Jesus to be the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited messiah, or Christ, a descendant of the Davidic line prophesied in the Old Testament. Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically.[g] Accounts of Jesus's life are contained in the Gospels, especially the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. Since the Enlightenment, academic research has produced various views on the historical reliability of the Gospels and the extent to which they reflect the historical Jesus.[20][h][23][24]
Jesus
A depiction of Jesus, titled Christ Pantocrator, 6th century AD, holding Bible in front of the sun. Christ's features on his right side (the viewer's left) are theorized to represent the qualities of his human nature, while his left side (the viewer's right) represents his divinity.
The Christ Pantocrator of Saint Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai, 6th century AD[a]
Born
    c. 6 to 4 BC[b]
Herodian kingdom, Roman Empire[7]
Died
    AD 30 or 33 (aged 33–39)
Jerusalem, then in Judaea, Roman Empire
Cause of death
    Crucifixion[c]
Known for
    

    Central figure of Christianity
    Manifestation of God in Baháʼí Faith
    Major prophet in Islam and the Druze faith

Parent(s)
    Mary, Joseph[d]

According to Christian tradition, as represented in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, Jesus was circumcised at eight days old, presented at the Temple in Jerusalem at forty days old, baptized by John the Baptist as a young adult, and, after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, began his public ministry. He was an itinerant teacher whom his followers believed to possess divine authority in interpreting Jewish law. Jesus often debated with other Jews, most commonly the Pharisees and Sadducees, about how best to follow God, engaged in healings, taught in parables, and gathered followers, 12 of whom he appointed as his apostles. According to the New Testament accounts, he was arrested in Jerusalem and tried by the Sanhedrin,[25] handed over to the Roman authorities, and crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judaea. After his death, his followers became convinced that he rose from the dead, and the community they formed eventually developed into the early Christian Church, which expanded into a worldwide movement.[26]

Christian theology includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Christian Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice for atonement for sin, rose from the dead on the third day, and ascended into Heaven, from where he will return. Christians commonly believe that Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, either before or after their bodily resurrection, an event associated with the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of the three persons of the Trinity.[i] The birth of Jesus in Bethlehem is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,[j] as Christmas. His crucifixion is commemorated on Good Friday and his resurrection on Easter Sunday. The world's most widely used calendar era—in which the current year is AD 2026 (or 2026 CE)—is traditionally based on the approximate date of the birth of Jesus.[27]

Mainstream Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited messiah, holding that he did not fulfill messianic prophecies, was not lawfully anointed, and was neither divine nor resurrected. In contrast, Jesus in Islam[k] is considered the messiah and a prophet of God, who was sent to the Israelites and will return to Earth before the Day of Judgement. Muslims believe that Jesus was born of the virgin Mary but was neither God nor the son of God. Most Muslims do not believe that he was killed or crucified, but that God raised him into Heaven while he was still alive.[l] Jesus is also revered in the Baháʼí and Druze faiths, as well as in Rastafari.
Name
Further information: Jesus (name), Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, Holy Name of Jesus, and Names of God in Christianity
From top-left: Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English transcriptions of the name Jesus

A Jewish person in Jesus's time usually had only one name, sometimes followed by a patronymic phrase of the form "son of [father's name]", or by the person's home town.[28] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth".[m] Jesus's neighbours in Nazareth referred to him as "the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon", "the carpenter's son", or "Joseph's son"; in the Gospel of John, the disciple Philip refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth".[29]

The name Jesus is the English transliteration, through Latin Iesus, of Ancient Greek: Ἰησοῦς, which is the Greek rendering of the Hebrew name Joshua (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ Yehoshua).[30][31] The Hebrew/Aramaic name was common among Judean Jews at the time of Jesus's birth,[32] although by that period it had been shortened to יֵשׁוּעַ (Yeshua) from יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (Yehoshua);[33] the contraction had already occurred in later biblical books such as Nehemiah,[34] where Joshua is referred to as Yeshua.[35]

The name means "God saves" in Hebrew, literally "Yahweh saves",[36] from the root ישׁע (y-š-ʿ, 'to save') and the noun יְשׁוּעָה (yeshuah, 'salvation'). The Gospel of Matthew asserts the etymological significance of Jesus's name explicitly in the prophecy of the angel to Joseph about his birth: "you will call his name Jesus (Ἰησοῦς), for he will save (σώσει) his people from their sins".[37]

The fact that Moses' successor Joshua bears the same name as Jesus in the original Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic has been given theological significance by commentators, as a parallel is often drawn between the two leaders and the etymology of their shared name ('to save'): Joshua leads the Jews into the Promised Land, while in Christianity Jesus is understood to save both Jews and Gentiles from their sins.[38][39][40][41]
Jesus Christ

Since the 1st century, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".[42] The word Christ is not a given name but was originally a title or office ("the Christ"), meaning "The Messiah".[43][44] The term derives from the Greek Χριστός (Christos),[45][46] a calque of the Hebrew word משיח (mashiakh), transliterated into English as messiah.[47] The Hebrew term means "anointed", from the verb מָשַׁח (mashaḥ), "to rub with oil, to anoint".[48] In the Septuagint, the Hebrew word was rendered into Greek as χριστός (christos), meaning "anointed",[49] from the verb χρίω (chrio), "to rub with oil, to anoint".[50] In biblical Judaism, sacred oil was used to anoint certain exceptionally holy people and objects as part of their religious investiture.[51]

Early Christians designated Jesus as "the Christ" because they believed him to be the Messiah whose arrival is prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In post-biblical usage, Christ came to be viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ". The term Christian, meaning a follower of Christ, has been in use since the 1st century.[52]
Life and teachings in the New Testament
Main article: Life of Jesus
Further information: New Testament places associated with Jesus
Canonical gospels
Main articles: Gospel, Gospel harmony, and Historical reliability of the Gospels
A four-page papyrus manuscript, which is torn in many placesA 3rd-century Greek papyrus of the Gospel of Luke

The four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are the foremost sources for the life and message of Jesus.[28] Other parts of the New Testament also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[53][54][55][56] Acts of the Apostles[57] refers to Jesus's early ministry and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[58][59][12] Acts 1:1–11[60] provides more detail about the Ascension of Jesus[61] than the canonical gospels do.[62] In the undisputed Pauline letters, which were written earlier than the gospels, Jesus's words or instructions are cited several times.[63][n]

Some early Christian groups had separate descriptions of Jesus's life and teachings that are not included in the New Testament. These include the Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Judas, the Apocryphon of James, and many other apocryphal writings. Most scholars conclude that these texts were written later and are less historically reliable than the canonical gospels.[66][67][68]
Authorship, date, and reliability

The canonical gospels are four accounts, each attributed to a different author. The authors of the gospels are generally regarded as pseudonymous and are attributed by tradition to the four evangelists, each associated with Jesus or his close followers:[69] Mark by John Mark, an associate of Peter;[70] Matthew to one of Jesus's disciples;[69] Luke to a companion of Paul mentioned in a few epistles;[69] and John to another of Jesus's disciples,[69] the "beloved disciple".[71]

According to Marcan priority, the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).[72] Most scholars agree that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source for their gospels. Since Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark, many scholars infer that they used a hypothetical Q source in addition to Mark, while a growing number support the Farrer hypothesis or Matthean Posteriority, in which Matthew and Luke used each other directly.[73][74][75] Luke and Matthew treat their sources more conservatively than other ancient historians like Diodorus Siculus, though the parallels and variations of the Synoptic gospels are typical of ancient historical biographies.[76][77]

One important aspect of the study of the gospels is the literary genre under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings".[78] Whether the gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a significant impact on how their works ought to be interpreted. Some studies have suggested that the gospels ought to be seen as a form of ancient biography.[79][80][81] Although not without critics,[82] the view that the gospels are a type of ancient biography represents the consensus among scholars today.[83][84]

Concerning the accuracy of the accounts, viewpoints range from considering them inerrant descriptions of Jesus's life,[85] to doubting their historical reliability on various points,[86] to regarding them as providing very little historical information about his life beyond the basics.[87][88]
Comparative structure and content

Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn, 'together') and ὄψις (opsis, 'view'),[89][90][91] because they are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language, and paragraph structure, and can readily be set side by side for synoptic comparison.[89][90][92] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.[93] Many events—such as Jesus's baptism, crucifixion, and interactions with his apostles—appear in the Synoptic Gospels, but incidents such as the transfiguration and Jesus's exorcising demons[94] do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the cleansing of the Temple.[95]

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the Son of God whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of God's Kingdom.[70] He is portrayed as a tireless wonder worker and the servant of both God and humanity.[96] This short gospel records relatively few of Jesus's words or extended teachings.[70] The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfilment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament and the Lord of the Church.[97] He is presented as the "Son of David", a "king", and the Messiah.[96][98] Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human saviour who shows compassion to the needy.[99] He is depicted as the friend of sinners and outcasts, who came to seek and save the lost.[96] This gospel includes well-known parables, such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son.[99]

The prologue to the Gospel of John identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos).[100] As the Word, Jesus is described as eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature.[100] In this gospel, Jesus is portrayed as not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be: he not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.[101] In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly and is depicted as the Bread of Life, the Light of the World, the True Vine, and more.[96]

The authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in establishing an absolute chronology of Jesus's life or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[102] As stated in John 21:25, the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events of Jesus's life.[103] The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity, with timelines as a secondary consideration.[104] The gospels devote about one third of their text to the last week of Jesus's life in Jerusalem, referred to as the Passion.[105] They do not provide enough detail to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, but it is possible to draw from them a general picture of Jesus's life story.[86][102][104]
Genealogy and nativity
Main articles: Genealogy of Jesus and Nativity of Jesus

Jesus was Jewish,[12] born to Mary, the wife of Joseph.[106] The Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer two different accounts of his genealogy. Matthew traces Jesus's ancestry to Abraham through David,[107][108] while Luke traces Jesus's ancestry through Adam to God.[109][110] The lists are identical between Abraham and David but differ markedly from that point onward; Matthew has 27 generations from David to Joseph, whereas Luke has 42, with almost no overlap between the names on the two lists.[o][111] Various theories have been put forward to explain why the two genealogies are so different.[p]
A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in lightAdoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622

Both Matthew and Luke describe Jesus's birth, particularly that he was born to a virgin named Mary in Bethlehem in fulfilment of prophecy. Luke's account emphasizes events before the birth of Jesus and centres on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers events after the birth and centres on Joseph.[112][113][114] Both accounts state that Mary was engaged to a man named Joseph, who was descended from King David and was not Jesus's biological father, and both support the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus, according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.[115][116][117] At the same time, there is evidence, at least in the Lukan Acts of the Apostles, that Jesus was thought to have had, like many figures in antiquity, a dual paternity, since there it is stated that he descended from the seed or loins of David.[118] By taking Jesus as his own son, Joseph is understood to confer on him the necessary Davidic descent.[119] Some scholars suggest that Jesus had Levite heritage from Mary, based on her blood relationship with Elizabeth.[120]
74.9 × 102.2 cmThe Circumcision by Giovanni Bellini, c. 1500. The work depicts the circumcision of Jesus.

In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant,[121] but in the first of Joseph's four dreams an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[122] In Matthew 2:1–12, wise men or Magi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews. They find him in a house in Bethlehem. Herod the Great hears of Jesus's birth and, wanting him killed, orders the killings of male infants in Bethlehem and its surroundings. However, an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family flees to Egypt, later returning and settling in Nazareth.[122][123][124]

In Luke 1:31–38, Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.[113][115] When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by Caesar Augustus. While there, Mary gives birth to Jesus, and, as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a manger.[125] An angel announces the birth to a group of shepherds, who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus and subsequently spread the news abroad.[126] Luke 2:21 recounts how Joseph and Mary have their baby circumcised on the eighth day after birth and name him Jesus, as Gabriel had commanded Mary.[127] After the presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Joseph, Mary, and Jesus return to Nazareth.[113][115]
Early life, family, and profession
Main articles: Christ Child and Holy Family
See also: Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth, Unknown years of Jesus, and Brothers of Jesus
Mary and Joseph find Jesus in the TempleThe Finding of the Saviour in the Temple by William Holman Hunt, 1860

Jesus's childhood home is identified in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew as Nazareth, a town in Galilee in present-day Israel, where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus's childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.[128][129] His other family members, including his mother Mary; his four brothers, James, Joses (or Joseph), Judas, and Simon; and his unnamed sisters, are mentioned in the Gospels and other sources.[130] Jesus's maternal grandparents are named Joachim and Anne in the Gospel of James.[131] The Gospel of Luke records that Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist.[132] Some extra-biblical contemporary sources consider Jesus and John the Baptist to be second cousins, based on the belief that Elizabeth was the daughter of Sobe, the sister of Anne.[133][134][135]

The Gospel of Mark reports that at the beginning of his ministry, Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbours and family.[136] Jesus's mother and brothers come to get him[137] because people are saying that he is out of his mind.[138] Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his mother attend a wedding at Cana, where he performs his first miracle at her request.[139] Later, she is present at his crucifixion, and he expresses concern for her well-being.[140]

Jesus is called a τέκτων (tektōn) in Mark 6:3, a term traditionally understood as "carpenter" but which can also refer to makers of objects in various materials, including builders.[141][142] Given the term's broad semantic range and "the socio-historical reality of a common Nazarene τέκτων", Matthew K. Robinson, a minister and academic, prefers to translate τέκτων as 'builder-craftsman'.[143][144] The Gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.[145]

The Gospel of Luke reports two journeys of Jesus and his parents in Jerusalem during his childhood. They come to the Temple in Jerusalem for the presentation of Jesus as a baby in accordance with Jewish Law, where a man named Simeon prophesies about Jesus and Mary.[146] When Jesus, at the age of twelve, goes missing on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for Passover, his parents find him in the Temple sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers. Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his Father's house".[147]
Baptism and temptation
Main articles: Baptism of Jesus and Temptation of Christ
Jesus is baptised by John. The Holy Spirit in the form of a dove is overhead.The Baptism of Christ by John the Baptist, by Almeida Júnior, 1895

The synoptic gospels describe Jesus's baptism in the Jordan River and the temptations he faced while spending forty days in the Judaean Desert as a preparation for his public ministry.[148] In each of these accounts, the accounts of Jesus's baptism is preceded by information about John the Baptist.[149][150][151] They portray John preaching repentance for the forgiveness of sins, encouraging the giving of alms to the poor,[152] baptizing people in the region of the Jordan River around Perea, and foretelling the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.[153][154]
Jesus and the Devil depicted in The Temptation of Christ, by Ary Scheffer, 1854

In the Gospel of Mark, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and as Jesus comes up out of the water he sees the Holy Spirit descending on him like a dove, and a voice comes from heaven and declares him to be God's Son.[155] This is one of two events described in the Gospels where a voice from Heaven refers to Jesus as "Son", the other being the Transfiguration.[156][157] The Spirit then drives him into the wilderness, where he is tempted by Satan.[158] After John's arrest, Jesus begins his ministry in Galilee.[159]

In the Gospel of Matthew, when Jesus comes to John to be baptized, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you."[160] Jesus instructs him to proceed with the baptism "to fulfil all righteousness".[161] Matthew then narratives three specific temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness.[162] In the Gospel of Luke, the Holy Spirit descends in bodily form like a dove after all the people have been baptized and while Jesus is praying.[163] Later, John implicitly acknowledges Jesus by sending his followers to inquire about him.[164] Luke also describes three temptations experienced by Jesus in the wilderness before he begins his ministry in Galilee.[165]

The Gospel of John does not narrate Jesus's baptism and temptation.[166] Instead, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend and remain on Jesus.[167][168] John publicly proclaims Jesus as the Lamb of God, and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.[169] Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize,[170] and they baptize more people than John.[171]
Public ministry
Main article: Ministry of Jesus
Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowdSermon on the Mount, by Carl Bloch, 1877, depicts Jesus's important discourse.

The Synoptics depict two main geographical settings in Jesus's ministry. The first takes place in Galilee, north of Judea, where Jesus conducts a largely successful ministry; the second occurs in Jerusalem, where he is rejected and killed.[172] Often referred to as "rabbi",[172] Jesus delivers his message orally.[173] In these accounts, he forbids those who recognize him as the messiah—including people he heals and demons he is said to exorcise—to speak about it (see Messianic Secret).[174] By contrast, the Gospel of John portrays Jesus's ministry as taking place primarily in and around Jerusalem rather than in Galilee, and his divine nature is more openly proclaimed and recognized.[101]

Scholars commonly divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after resisting the temptations of Satan. He then preaches throughout Galilee, and in Matthew 4:18–20, his first disciples—who will later form the core of the early Church—encounter him and begin to follow him.[151][175] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of Jesus's major discourses,[175][176] as well as the calming of the storm, the feeding of the 5,000, walking on water, and various other miracles and parables.[177] It concludes with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[178][179]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, during what is often called the Perean ministry, he returns to the region where he was baptized, roughly a third of the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan River.[180][181][182] The final phase of his ministry, In Jerusalem, begins with his triumphal entry into the city on Palm Sunday.[183] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Second Temple, and Judas bargains to betray him. This period culminates in the Last Supper and, in the Johannine account, the Farewell Discourse.[149][183][184]
Disciples and followers
Main articles: Apostles in the New Testament and Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles
The Exhortation to the Apostles, by James Tissot, portrays Jesus talking to his twelve disciples.

Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus appoints twelve apostles. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus calls his first four apostles, who are fishermen, and they are described as immediately leaving their nets to follow him.[185] In John, Jesus's first two apostles are initially disciples of John the Baptist; the Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God, and the two, hearing this, begin to follow Jesus.[186][187] In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the introduction of the Sermon on the Plain in Luke identifies a much larger group of people as disciples.[188] In Luke 10:1–16, Jesus sends 70 or 72 of his followers out in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visits; they are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick, and proclaim the Kingdom of God.[189]
Teachings and miracles
Main articles: Sermon on the Mount, Parables of Jesus, and Miracles of Jesus
See also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew, Farewell Discourse, Olivet Discourse, and Bread of Life Discourse
Jesus and the rich young man by Heinrich Hofmann, 1889

In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively—often in parables[190]—about the Kingdom of God. Jesus also speaks of the "Son of Man", an apocalyptic figure who will come to gather the chosen.[28] Jesus calls people to repent of their sins and to devote themselves wholly to God.[28] He instructs his followers to observe Jewish law, although he is perceived by some contemporaries as having broken the law himself, for example in relation to Sabbath observance.[28] When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.'"[191] Other ethical teachings attributed to Jesus include loving one's enemies, refraining from hatred and lust, turning the other cheek, and forgiving those who have sinned against oneself.[192][193]

The Gospel of John presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching but as divine revelation. John the Baptist, for example, states in John 3:34: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In John 7:16, Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He reiterates this in John 14:10: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."[194][195]
The Return of the Prodigal Son by Pompeo Batoni, 1773

Approximately 30 parables constitute about one-third of Jesus's recorded teachings.[194][196] The parables appear both within longer sermons and at various other places in the narrative.[197] They often contain symbolism and typically relate aspects of the physical world to spiritual realities.[198][199] Common themes include the kindness and generosity of God, as well as the dangers and consequences of transgression.[200] Some parables, such as that of the Prodigal Son,[201] are relatively straightforward, while others, such as the Growing Seed,[202] are more complex, profound, and difficult to interpret.[203] When his disciples ask why he speaks to the people in parables, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been granted "to know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest, adding: "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", and he goes on to say that most of their generation have developed "dull hearts" and are therefore unable to understand.[204]
Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing himJesus cleansing a leper, medieval mosaic from the Monreale Cathedral, late 12th to mid-13th centuries

In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a substantial portion of his ministry to performing miracles, especially healings.[205] These miracles are commonly classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.[206][207][208] The healing miracles include cures of physical ailments, exorcisms,[94][209] and the raising of the dead.[210][211][212][213] The nature miracles demonstrate authority over the natural world and include turning water into wine, walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus attributes his miracles to a divine source. When opponents accuse him of casting out demons by the power of Beelzebub, the prince of demons, he replies that he does so by the "Spirit of God" (Matthew 12:28) or "finger of God", arguing that it would be illogical for Satan to undermine his own domain; he also asks, if he exorcises by Beelzebub, "by whom do your sons cast them out?"[214][28][215] In Matthew 12:31–32, he further states that while all kinds of sin, including "insults against God" or "insults against the Son of Man", may be forgiven, blasphemy against "The Holy Spirit" will never be forgiven, and those guilty of it bear their sin permanently.[216]

In John, Jesus's miracles are described as "signs", performed to manifest his mission and identity.[217][218] In the Synoptic Gospels, when some teachers of the law and Pharisees ask him for a miraculous sign to validate his authority, Jesus refuses,[217] saying that no sign will be given to a corrupt and evil generation except the sign of the prophet Jonah. In the Synoptics, the crowds typically respond to his miracles with awe and press upon him to heal their sick, whereas in John, Jesus is depicted as less constrained by the crowds, who often respond to his signs with belief and trust.[219] A feature common to all the miracle narratives is that Jesus performs them freely and does not request or accept payment.[220] The miracle stories are frequently interwoven with teachings, and the miracles themselves often carry a didactic dimension.[221][222] Many emphasize the importance of faith: in the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus's daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing is due to their faith.[223][224]

In A Marginal Jew, scholar John P. Meier argues that "the miracle traditions about Jesus' public ministry are already so widely attested in various sources" that any "total fabrication by the early church is, practically speaking, impossible". He bases this claim on literary sources such as the Gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John, as well as on the writings of the historian Josephus. Meier contends that the "criterion of multiple attestation of sources and forms" supports the conclusion that Jesus performed "extraordinary deeds" which his contemporaries regarded as miracles.[225]

Scholar Paul J. Achtemeier argues that such miracles were not unique to Jesus in the ancient world and were perceived as ambiguous even by eyewitnesses. He notes that Jesus likely performed acts understood as exorcisms, which were "accepted as reality by his contemporaries", but that these should not be seen as having "probative value with respect to Jesus," since witnesses could claim that he was working with either Satan or God.[226] Scholar Gregory Sterling observes that, in the case of Jesus's alleged exorcisms, "For first-century Galileans who believed in the personal presence of evil in the form of demons, Jesus' act was a validation of his ministry."[227]
Proclamation, Transfiguration, and Passion Week
Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus
The Transfiguration of Jesus, depicted by Carl Bloch, 19th century

At approximately the midpoint of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two significant events are narrated: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus—not mentioned in the Gospel of John.[179][228][156][157][229] In the Confession of Peter, Peter declares to Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God";[230][231][232] Jesus affirms that this is a divinely revealed truth.[233][234] Following this confession, Jesus begins to tell his disciples about his forthcoming suffering, death, and resurrection.[235] In the Transfiguration,[236][156][157][179] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".[237] A bright cloud envelops them, and a voice from the cloud proclaims, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."[238][156]

The description of the final week of Jesus's life—often referred to as Passion Week—occupies roughly one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels.[105] This section begins with Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem and concludes with his crucifixion.[149][183]
Activities in Jerusalem
Main articles: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Cleansing of the Temple, and Bargain of Judas
Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls.A painting of Jesus's final entry into Jerusalem, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1897

In the Synoptic Gospels, the final week in Jerusalem concludes the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.[183] Jesus enters Jerusalem riding a young donkey, evoking the motif of the Messiah's donkey from the Book of Zechariah, in the humble king of the Jews comes to the city in this manner.[239][70] As he proceeds, people spread cloaks and small branches of trees (palm fronds) on the road before him and chant lines from Psalm 118:25–26.[240][241][242][243]

Jesus next expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. Most scholars agree that it is overwhelmingly likely that Jesus did something in the temple and mentioned its destruction.[244][174] In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus's ministry instead of at the end.[245][101] Ancient compositional practices involved such chronological displacement and compression, with even reliable biographers like Plutarch displaying them.[246]

Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they question his authority and when he criticizes them and calls them hypocrites.[241][243] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for 30 silver coins.[247][248]

The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.[249][136] In Bethany, a village near Jerusalem, Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. This potent sign[101] increases the tension with authorities,[183] who conspire to kill him.[250][136] Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus's feet, foreshadowing his entombment.[251] Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.[136] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.[183] In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus's Last Supper with his disciples.[136]
Last Supper
Main article: Last Supper
See also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter, and Last Supper in Christian art
 The Last Supper, depicted by Juan de Juanes, c. 1562

The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shared with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians[252] also refers to it.[55][56][253] During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.[254] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 identify Judas as the traitor.[55][56][254]

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you." He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."[255][55][256] The Christian sacrament or ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events.[257] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[258]

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the cock crows the next morning.[259][260] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.[261] In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.[262][263] The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet after the meal.[123] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content.[264][265]
Agony in the Garden, betrayal, and arrest
Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas, and Arrest of Jesus
 A depiction of the kiss of Judas and arrest of Jesus, by Caravaggio, c. 1602

In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the garden Gethsemane, where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, scribes and elders. He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which then arrests Jesus. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the ear of a man in the crowd. After Jesus's arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice denies knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the cock crow and recalls Jesus's prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.[263][174][259]

In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.[266] The people who arrest him are Roman soldiers and Temple guards.[267] Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it.
Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod, and Pilate
Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, and Jesus at Herod's Court
See also: Jesus, King of the Jews; John 18:38; and Ecce homo

After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest, Caiaphas, who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procurator Valerius Gratus.[268] The Sanhedrin was a Jewish judicial body.[269] The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials.[270] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53, and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[271][272][273] John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas, Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.[271][272][273]
 Ecce homo! Antonio Ciseri's 1871 depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting Jesus to the public

During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus's unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?".[271][272][273] In Mark 14:61, the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?". Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.[28] This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus's answer is more ambiguous:[28][274] in Matthew 26:64, he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am."[275][276]

The Jewish elders take Jesus to Pilate's Court and ask the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a king, and claiming to be the son of God.[q][273] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36, Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.[277][278] In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea.[279][280] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[281] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,[279] who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".[281]

Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas (בר-אבא or Bar-abbâ, "son of the father", from the common given name Abba: 'father').[282] Persuaded by the elders,[283] the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[284] Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus's cross,[285][286] then scourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a crown of thorns on Jesus's head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary,[287] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.[271][273][288]
Crucifixion and entombment
Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Burial of Jesus
See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and Crucifixion darkness
 Diego Velázquez's depiction of the Crucifixion, approx. 1632

Jesus's crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.[289][290] In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.[289] At Calvary, Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as a painkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.[289][290]

The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus's head on the cross is Pilate's multilingual inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Soldiers and passersby mock him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke, one of them rebukes Jesus, while the other defends him.[289][291][292] Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise."[293] The four gospels mention the presence of a group of female disciples of Jesus at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his mother Mary and the beloved disciple and tells him to take care of her.[294]

In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead, one soldier pierces Jesus's side with a lance, and blood and water flow out.[291] The Synoptics report a period of darkness, and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Son of God.[289][295]

On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and with Nicodemus's help, removes Jesus's body from the cross, wraps it in a clean cloth, and buries it in a new rock-hewn tomb.[289] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.[289][296]
Resurrection and ascension
Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Empty tomb, and Ascension of Jesus
Further information: Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul
See also: Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art and Ascension of Jesus in Christian art
 Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov, 1835

The Gospels do not describe the moment of the resurrection of Jesus. They describe the discovery of his empty tomb and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.[297]

In the four Gospels, Mary Magdalene goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or several other women.[298] The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.[299] In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.[300] In Luke, Peter visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.[301] In John, he goes there with the beloved disciple.[302] Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,[303] who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciples stole Jesus's body during the night.[304]

The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,[305] along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,[306] while in Luke the first reported appearance is to two disciples heading to Emmaus.[307] Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.[308] In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them his tangible wounds to prove that he is not a spirit.[309] He also shows them to Thomas to end his doubts, in John 20:24–29.[310] In the Synoptics, Jesus commissions the disciples to spread the gospel message to all nations,[123][311] while in John 21, he tells Peter to take care of his sheep.[62][312]

Jesus's ascension into Heaven is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11, and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In the Acts of the Apostles, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".[62]

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55, Stephen gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.[313] On the road to Damascus, the Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."[314] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs Ananias of Damascus in a vision to heal Paul.[315] The Book of Revelation includes a revelation from Jesus concerning the last days of Earth.[316]
Early Christianity

Historical views

Religious perspectives

Artistic depictions

Associated relics

See also

Notes


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